Which one among the following may be considered a reason for India having ‘high dependency’ ratio ?

The dependency ratio is defined as the ratio of the dependent population (those aged 0-14 and 60 and above) to the working-age population (aged 15-59) [1]. Historically, India has experienced a high dependency ratio primarily due to a large section of its population being in the younger age group of 0-14 years [2]. In the late 20th century, this younger cohort accounted for between 37% and 42% of the total population, significantly increasing the burden on the workforce [2]. While India is currently transitioning into a 'demographic dividend' phase where the working-age population (15-59) is rising and the dependency ratio is declining, the historical 'high dependency' was driven by high fertility rates resulting in a massive youth population [3]. Option 3 would actually result in a low dependency ratio, while options 1 and 4 are indirect factors rather than the structural definition of the ratio.

Sources

1. [1] Indian Economy, Nitin Singhania .(ed 2nd 2021-22) > Chapter 19: Population and Demographic Dividend > Challenges Related to Demographic Dividend > p. 573
2. [2] Geography of India ,Majid Husain, (McGrawHill 9th ed.) > Chapter 13: Cultural Setting > AGE COMPOSITION > p. 95
3. [3] Indian Economy, Nitin Singhania .(ed 2nd 2021-22) > Chapter 19: Population and Demographic Dividend > Population Versus Economic Development in India > p. 563