Which one of the following is not an exclusive right of the concerned coastal nations over Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)?

1. Introduction to UNCLOS and Baselines (basic)

Welcome to our journey into World Political Geography! To understand how nations interact at sea, we must start with the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), often referred to as the 'Constitution of the Oceans.' Adopted in 1982, UNCLOS provides the comprehensive legal framework that governs all activities in the world’s oceans and seas. India, as a significant maritime nation and a proactive member of the United Nations, has long supported such international frameworks to ensure global order and peace Indian Polity, M. Laxmikanth(7th ed.), Foreign Policy, p.610.

The most fundamental concept in maritime law is the Baseline. You can think of the baseline as the 'starting line' on a track. Before you can measure how far a country's legal rights extend into the sea (like Territorial Waters or the Exclusive Economic Zone), you must first establish where the land officially ends and the sea begins. There are two main ways to draw this line:

Baseline Type	Description	When it's used
Normal Baseline	The low-water line along the coast as marked on official large-scale charts.	Used for standard, relatively straight coastlines.
Straight Baseline	Straight lines connecting specific points on the coast, skipping over indentations.	Used for deeply indented coastlines or where there is a fringe of islands.

Everything that lies on the landward side of this baseline is classified as Internal Waters. This includes ports, bays, rivers, and even some lakes connected to the sea. From a legal standpoint, Internal Waters are identical to the land territory of the state. The coastal nation has absolute sovereignty here, meaning foreign ships have no automatic right of "innocent passage" through internal waters unless specifically granted by the coastal state.

Sources: Indian Polity, M. Laxmikanth(7th ed.), Foreign Policy, p.610

2. Territorial Sea and the Right of Innocent Passage (intermediate)

To understand how nations interact at sea, we must first look at the **Territorial Sea**. Think of this as a direct extension of a country’s land territory. Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), every coastal nation has the right to establish the breadth of its territorial sea up to a limit of 12 nautical miles (approximately 22 kilometers) measured from a 'baseline' (usually the low-water mark along the coast). Within this 12-mile zone, the coastal state exercises full sovereignty—this means its national laws apply to the water, the seabed below, and even the airspace above. For instance, the territorial waters of India are specifically recognized to extend to this 12-nautical-mile limit. Modern India, Bipin Chandra, p.16

However, because the sea is a vital highway for global trade, this sovereignty is not as absolute as it is on land. The most significant limitation is the Right of Innocent Passage. This principle allows ships of all states—whether coastal or land-locked—to pass through the territorial sea without needing prior authorization, provided the passage is 'innocent.' For passage to be innocent, it must not be prejudicial to the peace, good order, or security of the coastal state.

To stay within the bounds of 'innocent passage,' foreign vessels must follow specific rules:

• Continuous and Expeditious: Ships must keep moving and cannot stop or anchor unless it is incidental to ordinary navigation or due to force majeure (unforeseen circumstances).
• Non-Threatening: Activities like weapons practice, spying, or picking up/loading illegal cargo are strictly prohibited.
• Submarines: Submarines and other underwater vehicles are required to navigate on the surface and show their flag.

Sources: Modern India, The Decline of the Mughal Empire, p.16; Modern India, The Beginnings of European Settlements, p.64; Modern India, Indian States and Society in the 18th Century, p.46

3. The Contiguous Zone: Enforcement and Jurisdiction (intermediate)

Once we move beyond the Territorial Sea (which extends 12 nautical miles from the baseline), we enter the Contiguous Zone. While the Territorial Sea is considered an extension of a nation's land territory where it enjoys full sovereignty India Physical Environment, Geography Class XI (NCERT 2025 ed.), India — Location, p.2, the Contiguous Zone is a specific maritime belt extending up to 24 nautical miles from the baseline. This zone acts as a 'law enforcement' buffer where the coastal state doesn't have total sovereignty, but does have the authority to prevent and punish the infringement of its laws in four specific areas: Customs, Fiscal (taxation), Immigration, and Sanitary (often remembered by the acronym CFIS).

In the Indian context, the Union government holds jurisdiction over these maritime zones to ensure national security and economic integrity Indian Polity, M. Laxmikanth (7th ed.), Rights and Liabilities of the Government, p.551. For instance, the Customs Act, 1962 allows Indian authorities to intercept vessels in this zone to prevent smuggling or to collect Basic Customs Duty on goods being brought into the country Indian Economy, Nitin Singhania (2nd ed.), Indian Tax Structure and Public Finance, p.95. This is a crucial distinction: while foreign ships enjoy freedom of navigation in the Contiguous Zone (as it overlaps with the Exclusive Economic Zone), they must comply with the coastal state’s specific administrative and protective regulations regarding border control and public health.

Feature	Territorial Sea (0–12 nm)	Contiguous Zone (12–24 nm)
Nature of Power	Full Sovereignty (Air, Water, Soil)	Limited Enforcement (CFIS only)
Navigation	Innocent Passage	Freedom of Navigation (High Seas rules)
Legal Purpose	State Boundary	Preventative Buffer/Policing

Sources: India Physical Environment, Geography Class XI (NCERT 2025 ed.), India — Location, p.2; Indian Polity, M. Laxmikanth (7th ed.), Rights and Liabilities of the Government, p.551; Indian Economy, Nitin Singhania (2nd ed.), Indian Tax Structure and Public Finance, p.95

4. The High Seas and 'The Area' (intermediate)

Beyond the 200-nautical-mile limit of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) lies the vast expanse of the High Seas. Unlike territorial waters, the High Seas are considered res communis—meaning they belong to no single nation but are open to all. Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), this area is reserved for peaceful purposes. While coastal states manage resources in their EEZs, the High Seas offer six fundamental freedoms to all states (coastal or land-locked), including freedom of navigation, overflight, and the laying of submarine cables and pipelines. While 'High Seas' refers to the water column, the term 'The Area' refers specifically to the seabed, ocean floor, and subsoil beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. This distinction is crucial because 'The Area' and its mineral resources (like polymetallic nodules) are designated as the 'Common Heritage of Mankind.' This means no nation can claim or exercise sovereignty over any part of 'The Area' or its resources; instead, all rights in the resources of 'The Area' are vested in mankind as a whole. To manage these resources and ensure they aren't just grabbed by the most technologically advanced nations, UNCLOS established the International Seabed Authority (ISA). Note that while we often discuss international cooperation in the context of the Nitin Singhania, Infrastructure, p.451 International Solar Alliance (ISA) headquartered in India, the seabed's ISA is a separate body based in Jamaica that organizes and controls activities in 'The Area,' particularly with a view to administering its mineral resources.

Comparison: Water vs. Seabed

Feature	The High Seas	The Area
Scope	The water column beyond the EEZ.	The seabed and subsoil beyond national jurisdiction.
Legal Status	Freedom of use (Navigation, Fishing, Research).	Common Heritage of Mankind.
Governance	General UNCLOS principles/Flag State jurisdiction.	International Seabed Authority (ISA).

Sources: Indian Economy, Nitin Singhania, Infrastructure, p.451

5. Blue Economy and Deep Sea Mining (exam-level)

The Blue Economy refers to the sustainable use of ocean resources for economic growth, improved livelihoods, and jobs, while preserving the health of the ocean ecosystem. It represents a shift from simple extraction to a managed, circular approach involving renewable energy, sustainable fisheries, and maritime transport. At the heart of this economic frontier is Deep Sea Mining—the process of retrieving mineral deposits from the ocean floor. These deposits include Polymetallic Nodules (rich in manganese, nickel, cobalt, and copper) and Placer Deposits (alluvial minerals like gold, tin, and platinum found in valley floors and ocean beds) Contemporary India II: Textbook in Geography for Class X, Print Culture and the Modern World, p.107. While the ocean contains vast quantities of minerals like magnesium and bromine, many are too diffused for easy extraction, making concentrated seabed nodules the primary target for modern industry Contemporary India II: Textbook in Geography for Class X, Print Culture and the Modern World, p.107.

The legal framework governing these activities is the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Under UNCLOS, coastal nations are granted an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), extending up to 200 nautical miles from their baseline. Within this zone, the coastal state holds sovereign rights to explore, exploit, conserve, and manage all natural resources, both living (fisheries) and non-living (minerals and energy) Geography of India, India–Political Aspects, p.68. However, these rights are not absolute ownership of the water column itself. The EEZ maintains a unique legal status where international freedoms are preserved: other states still enjoy the freedom of navigation, overflight, and the laying of submarine cables and pipelines. This balance ensures that while a nation like India can mine its seabed, it cannot impede the global flow of trade or data passing through those same waters.

India’s strategic interest in the Blue Economy is highlighted by its Deep Ocean Mission and the development of early warning systems. For instance, the National Tsunami Early Warning Centre (established by the Ministry of Earth Sciences) monitors seismic activity in the Indian Ocean to protect coastal infrastructure Physical Geography by PMF IAS, Tsunami, p.195. Furthermore, the Indian Ocean's unique geography—being land-locked to the north and influenced by the monsoon drift—creates specific current patterns that affect how minerals settle and how deep-sea ecosystems function Physical Geography by PMF IAS, Ocean Movements Ocean Currents And Tides, p.495.

Feature	Territorial Waters (12nm)	Exclusive Economic Zone (200nm)
Sovereignty	Full sovereignty (like land territory)	Sovereign rights over resources only
Navigation	Right of Innocent Passage applies	Freedoms of navigation and overflight
Resource Rights	Exclusive to the coastal state	Exclusive to the coastal state

Sources: Contemporary India II: Textbook in Geography for Class X, Print Culture and the Modern World, p.107; Geography of India, India–Political Aspects, p.68; Physical Geography by PMF IAS, Tsunami, p.195; Physical Geography by PMF IAS, Ocean Movements Ocean Currents And Tides, p.495

6. Land-locked States and Transit Rights (exam-level)

In world political geography, a land-locked state is a country entirely enclosed by land, lacking a direct outlet to the high seas. This geographical constraint has historically posed a significant challenge for trade and economic development. To address this, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) established specific legal frameworks to ensure these nations are not excluded from the global maritime commons. Specifically, land-locked states are granted the right of access to and from the sea and the freedom of transit through the territory of 'transit states' by all means of transport. In the Indian Ocean region alone, there are 13 such land-locked countries whose economic survival depends heavily on these transit corridors Majid Husain, Geography of India, India–Political Aspects, p.72.

A common misconception is that a coastal state has total sovereignty over its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)—the area extending up to 200 nautical miles from the coast. While the coastal state does have exclusive rights to explore and exploit natural resources (like fisheries and seabed minerals), it does not own the water like its land territory. Under Article 58 of UNCLOS, all states, whether coastal or land-locked, enjoy the freedoms of navigation and overflight within the EEZ. Furthermore, land-locked states have the right to lay submarine cables and pipelines in these zones. This ensures that a land-locked nation's connectivity to the rest of the world remains protected by international law.

From an Indian perspective, while the Union holds ownership over minerals and resources underlying the ocean within its territorial waters D. D. Basu, Introduction to the Constitution of India, RIGHTS AND LIABILITIES OF THE GOVERNMENT AND PUBLIC SERVANTS, p.425, it must still respect the transit rights of its neighbors. For instance, countries like Nepal and Bhutan rely on Indian territory for their maritime trade. This relationship is often governed by bilateral treaties that operationalize the broad principles laid down by UNCLOS, ensuring that land-locked states can participate in global commerce despite their lack of a coastline.

Sources: Geography of India, India–Political Aspects, p.72; Introduction to the Constitution of India, RIGHTS AND LIABILITIES OF THE GOVERNMENT AND PUBLIC SERVANTS, p.425

7. Sovereign Rights vs. International Freedoms in the EEZ (exam-level)

To understand the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), we must distinguish between "full sovereignty" and "sovereign rights." While a nation has absolute control over its land and Territorial Waters (extending 12 nautical miles from the baseline), the EEZ—which extends up to 200 nautical miles—is a unique legal hybrid. It is a zone where the coastal state has authority over resources, but the international community retains specific high-seas freedoms.

Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), the coastal state is granted sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring, exploiting, conserving, and managing natural resources. This includes both living resources (like fisheries) and non-living resources (like oil, gas, and minerals found on the seabed). For instance, in India, all sea-wealth, minerals, and other things of value within the EEZ vest in the Union government, meaning individual states cannot claim jurisdiction over them Indian Polity, M. Laxmikanth(7th ed.), Rights and Liabilities of the Government, p.551.

However, these rights are not absolute. The EEZ remains part of the "international commons" for specific activities. Under Article 58 of UNCLOS, all states—whether coastal or land-locked—continue to enjoy three fundamental international freedoms within another nation's EEZ:

• Freedom of Navigation: Foreign ships can pass through the EEZ without permission (unlike internal waters).
• Freedom of Overflight: Foreign aircraft can fly over the EEZ.
• Laying of Submarine Cables and Pipelines: Other nations can lay communication cables or oil/gas pipelines, provided they respect the coastal state's existing resource installations.

Feature	Territorial Sea (0–12 nm)	EEZ (12–200 nm)
Nature of Authority	Full Sovereignty (like land)	Sovereign Rights (resource-specific)
Navigation	Innocent Passage (restricted)	Freedom of Navigation (broad)
Resource Extraction	Exclusive to Coastal State	Exclusive to Coastal State
Cables & Pipelines	Coastal State permission needed	Freedom for all states

Sources: Indian Polity, M. Laxmikanth(7th ed.), Rights and Liabilities of the Government, p.551

8. Solving the Original PYQ (exam-level)

This question tests your ability to distinguish between Sovereign Rights and Absolute Sovereignty. Having mastered the building blocks of maritime zones, you know that the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is primarily a functional zone focused on resource management rather than total territorial control. The core concept here is the "Resource vs. Transit" divide: while the coastal state has the exclusive right to profit from the area's wealth, it cannot treat the zone as its private lake for international movement. As specified in UNCLOS Article 58, the EEZ retains certain "high seas" characteristics to ensure global trade and communication remain uninterrupted.

To arrive at the correct answer, you must ask: Does this activity involve extracting wealth or simply passing through? Options (A), (B), and (C) all relate to the survey, exploitation, conservation, and management of resources—whether they be mineral deposits, marine organisms (fishing), or marine water energy. These are the fundamental economic pillars that the coastal state controls exclusively. However, Option (D), which covers the navigation of ships and laying down submarine cables, represents international freedoms that are preserved for all nations, whether coastal or land-locked. Therefore, because these rights are shared by the global community, they cannot be termed "exclusive" to the coastal nation.

A classic UPSC trap is to use the word "Exclusive" in the zone's name to mislead you into thinking every activity there is restricted to the coastal state. Do not fall for this; always remember that the EEZ is a compromise between a state's economic interests and the international community's Freedom of Navigation. While the coastal state acts as the sole manager of living and non-living resources, the water column remains an open highway for the world's vessels and telecommunications infrastructure. This is why (D) Navigation of ships and laying down submarine cables is the only option that is not an exclusive right of the coastal nation.