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Q90 (IAS/2015) Economy › Growth, Development, Poverty & Employment › Economic growth theories Official Key

The substitution of steel for wooden ploughs in agricultural production is an example of

Result
Your answer: —  ·  Correct: B
Explanation

Capital-augmenting technical progress refers to innovations or improvements in technology that specifically increase the effectiveness or productivity of capital[1]. When steel ploughs replace wooden ploughs, the same amount of capital investment becomes more productive. Heavy iron-tipped ploughs could dig much deeper and the mould-boards turned the topsoil properly, with this the nutrients from the soil were better utilised[2], compared to wooden ploughs which could at best scratch the surface of the earth and were unable to fully draw out the natural productivity of the soil[3].

This substitution makes capital (the plough) more effective without necessarily changing the amount of labor required. The steel plough represents an improvement in the quality of capital equipment, enabling greater output per unit of capital invested. Therefore, this is a classic example of capital-augmenting technological progress, where better capital goods enhance productivity.

Sources

  1. [2] Themes in world history, History Class XI (NCERT 2025 ed.) > Chapter 4: The Three Orders > New Agricultural Technology > p. 97
  2. [3] Themes in world history, History Class XI (NCERT 2025 ed.) > Chapter 4: The Three Orders > Land Use > p. 96
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Don’t just practise – reverse-engineer the question. This panel shows where this PYQ came from (books / web), how the examiner broke it into hidden statements, and which nearby micro-concepts you were supposed to learn from it. Treat it like an autopsy of the question: what might have triggered it, which exact lines in the book matter, and what linked ideas you should carry forward to future questions.
Q. The substitution of steel for wooden ploughs in agricultural production is an example of [A] labour-augmenting technological progress […
At a glance
Origin: Books + Current Affairs Fairness: Moderate fairness Books / CA: 6.7/10 · 3.3/10

This is a classic 'Applied Theory' question. It takes a dry concept from Microeconomics (Production Functions) and wraps it in a historical/agricultural example. The challenge isn't knowing history, but mapping the physical change (Wood -> Steel) to the correct economic variable (Capital vs. Labour).

How this question is built

This question can be broken into the following sub-statements. Tap a statement sentence to jump into its detailed analysis.

Statement 1
Does substituting steel ploughs for wooden ploughs in agricultural production constitute labour-augmenting technological progress?
Origin: Direct from books Fairness: Straightforward Book-answerable
From standard books
Themes in world history, History Class XI (NCERT 2025 ed.) > Chapter 4: The Three Orders > New Agricultural Technology > p. 97
Presence: 5/5
“By the eleventh century, there is evidence of several technological changes. Instead of the basic wooden ploughs, cultivators began using heavy iron-tipped ploughs and mould-boards. These ploughs could dig much deeper and the mould-boards turned the topsoil properly. With this the nutrients from the soil were better utilised. The methods of harnessing animals to the plough improved. Instead of the neck-harness, the shoulder-harness came into use. This enabled animals to exert greater power. Horses were now better shod, with iron horseshoes, which prevented foot decay. There was increased use of wind and water energy for agriculture. More waterpowered and wind-powered mills were set up all over Europe for purposes like milling corn and pressing grapes.”
Why this source?
  • Explicitly describes heavy iron-tipped ploughs and mould-boards digging deeper and turning topsoil, improving nutrient use — a clear productivity-enhancing change.
  • Notes improved harnessing (shoulder-harness) enabling animals to exert greater power, which raises the effective output per unit of labour/animal.
  • Puts iron ploughs in the context of broader energy/technology adoption (wind and water mills), indicating technological shifts that augment production capacity.
THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.) > Chapter 2: Kings, Farmers and Towns > 5.2 Strategies for increasing production > p. 38
Presence: 4/5
“One such strategy was the shift to plough agriculture, which spread in fertile alluvial river valleys such as those of the Ganga and the Kaveri from c. sixth century BCE. The iron-tipped ploughshare was used to turn the alluvial soil in areas which had high rainfall. Moreover, in some parts of the Ganga valley, production of paddy was dramatically increased by the introduction of transplantation, although this meant back-breaking work for the producer. While the iron ploughshare led to a growth in agricultural productivity, its use was restricted to certain parts of the subcontinent – cultivators in”
Why this source?
  • States that the iron ploughshare led to a growth in agricultural productivity, directly linking the technology to higher output.
  • Although geographically uneven, the snippet ties the iron plough to increased production — implying labour productivity gains where adopted.
Themes in world history, History Class XI (NCERT 2025 ed.) > Chapter 4: The Three Orders > Land Use > p. 96
Presence: 4/5
“Initially, agricultural technology was very primitive. The only mechanical aid available to the peasant was the wooden plough, drawn by a team of oxen. This plough could at best scratch the surface of the earth and was unable to fully draw out the natural productivity of the soil. Agriculture was therefore very labour intensive. Fields had to be”
Why this source?
  • Describes the wooden plough as primitive and agriculture as very labour intensive because the wooden plough only scratched the surface.
  • By contrasting the labour-intensity of wooden ploughs with later iron implements, it supports the inference that substituting iron/steel ploughs reduces labour required per unit output.
Statement 2
Does substituting steel ploughs for wooden ploughs in agricultural production constitute capital-augmenting technological progress?
Origin: Direct from books Fairness: Straightforward Book-answerable
From standard books
Themes in world history, History Class XI (NCERT 2025 ed.) > Chapter 4: The Three Orders > New Agricultural Technology > p. 97
Presence: 5/5
“By the eleventh century, there is evidence of several technological changes. Instead of the basic wooden ploughs, cultivators began using heavy iron-tipped ploughs and mould-boards. These ploughs could dig much deeper and the mould-boards turned the topsoil properly. With this the nutrients from the soil were better utilised. The methods of harnessing animals to the plough improved. Instead of the neck-harness, the shoulder-harness came into use. This enabled animals to exert greater power. Horses were now better shod, with iron horseshoes, which prevented foot decay. There was increased use of wind and water energy for agriculture. More waterpowered and wind-powered mills were set up all over Europe for purposes like milling corn and pressing grapes.”
Why this source?
  • Describes replacement of wooden ploughs by heavy iron-tipped ploughs and mould-boards that dig deeper and better turn topsoil.
  • Indicates this technological change improved nutrient utilisation and thus raised agricultural productivity.
Geography of India ,Majid Husain, (McGrawHill 9th ed.) > Chapter 9: Agriculture > 5. Mechanisation > p. 49
Presence: 4/5
“Modern farming tools and technology like tractors, leveller, seeder, planter, threshers, harvesters, winnower and sprayers are also imperative for the successful cultivation of the High Yielding Varieties. These varieties require adequate arrangements of controlled irrigation. Raising of two or three crops from the same field is possible only if the modern technology is available to the farmer. The indigenous plough and bullock/buffalo carts are less efficient to complete the agricultural operations on time. Machinery like tractors, threshers, sprayers, tillers, chaff cutters, leveller, pumping sets, etc., are required for the timely operations of sowing, weeding, spraying, and harvesting. The mechanisation of agriculture also helps in the judicious utilisation of complementary inputs like chemical fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides.”
Why this source?
  • Frames modern farming tools and mechanisation as capital-intensive inputs that increase efficiency and enable timely operations.
  • Contrasts indigenous (wooden) ploughs as less efficient, implying adoption of metal/modern tools is a shift toward capital use.
Exploring Society:India and Beyond ,Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT(Revised ed 2025) > Chapter 7: Factors of Production > How are the Factors Connected? > p. 178
Presence: 4/5
“The factors — land, labour, capital, entrepreneurship and technology are combined to produce goods and services, and the proportion of each factor used depends on the product. For example, output from the agriculture, construction, and handicraft sectors relies more on labour and thus is labourintensive, while semiconductor chips or satellites require more capital, specialised machinery, and are capital-intensive. These factors complement each other and are interconnected; in case of some missing or misused factors, production can become inefficient or can be halted. However, in some cases, new techniques can change the proportion used and output. For instance, increased machine use in agriculture can lower dependence on labour.”
Why this source?
  • Explicitly links increased machine use to lower dependence on labour, showing how technology changes factor proportions.
  • Positions technology as a factor that can substitute for labour — a core aspect of capital-augmenting change.
Statement 3
Does substituting steel ploughs for wooden ploughs in agricultural production constitute capital-reducing technological progress?
Origin: Web / Current Affairs Fairness: CA heavy Web-answerable

Web source
Presence: 5/5
"ANSWER B Capital-Augmenting Technical Progress refers to innovations or improvements in technology that specifically increase the effectiveness or productivity of capital"
Why this source?
  • Directly answers the multiple-choice question and gives the correct option as capital-augmenting (not capital-reducing).
  • Defines capital-augmenting technical progress as increasing the effectiveness/productivity of capital, which fits steel replacing wood.
Web source
Presence: 5/5
"Hence it is a capital-augmenting technological progress."
Why this source?
  • Explicit explanation stating steel ploughs increase plough productivity and support mechanisation, reducing labour requirement and encouraging steel production.
  • Concludes replacement is capital-augmenting technological progress, directly refuting it being capital-reducing.
Web source
Presence: 5/5
"The substitution of steel for wooden ploughs in agricultural production is an example of ... capital-augmenting technological progress"
Why this source?
  • Lists the same question and marks the answer as capital-augmenting technological progress.
  • Supports consensus across exam-answer sources that steel for wooden ploughs is capital-augmenting.

Themes in world history, History Class XI (NCERT 2025 ed.) > Chapter 4: The Three Orders > New Agricultural Technology > p. 97
Strength: 5/5
“By the eleventh century, there is evidence of several technological changes. Instead of the basic wooden ploughs, cultivators began using heavy iron-tipped ploughs and mould-boards. These ploughs could dig much deeper and the mould-boards turned the topsoil properly. With this the nutrients from the soil were better utilised. The methods of harnessing animals to the plough improved. Instead of the neck-harness, the shoulder-harness came into use. This enabled animals to exert greater power. Horses were now better shod, with iron horseshoes, which prevented foot decay. There was increased use of wind and water energy for agriculture. More waterpowered and wind-powered mills were set up all over Europe for purposes like milling corn and pressing grapes.”
Why relevant

Describes replacement of wooden ploughs by heavy iron‑tipped ploughs and mould‑boards that dig deeper and use soil nutrients better — an example of a more effective implement improving productivity.

How to extend

A student could use this pattern to ask whether the steel plough increases output per implement (suggesting more output from same capital) or replaces multiple implements (suggesting less capital required).

Themes in world history, History Class XI (NCERT 2025 ed.) > Chapter 4: The Three Orders > Land Use > p. 96
Strength: 4/5
“Initially, agricultural technology was very primitive. The only mechanical aid available to the peasant was the wooden plough, drawn by a team of oxen. This plough could at best scratch the surface of the earth and was unable to fully draw out the natural productivity of the soil. Agriculture was therefore very labour intensive. Fields had to be”
Why relevant

States wooden ploughs were primitive and made agriculture labour‑intensive — implying improved ploughs could shift factor proportions (labour vs capital).

How to extend

One can combine this with basic economics to test if steel ploughs lower labour needs or require more/less capital investment than wooden ones.

THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.) > Chapter 2: Kings, Farmers and Towns > 5.2 Strategies for increasing production > p. 38
Strength: 4/5
“One such strategy was the shift to plough agriculture, which spread in fertile alluvial river valleys such as those of the Ganga and the Kaveri from c. sixth century BCE. The iron-tipped ploughshare was used to turn the alluvial soil in areas which had high rainfall. Moreover, in some parts of the Ganga valley, production of paddy was dramatically increased by the introduction of transplantation, although this meant back-breaking work for the producer. While the iron ploughshare led to a growth in agricultural productivity, its use was restricted to certain parts of the subcontinent – cultivators in”
Why relevant

Notes iron‑tipped ploughshare led to growth in productivity in some regions — concrete example that a metal plough can raise output.

How to extend

A student could compare productivity gains to the additional capital cost of steel ploughs to judge if capital per unit output fell.

Exploring Society:India and Beyond ,Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT(Revised ed 2025) > Chapter 7: Factors of Production > How are the Factors Connected? > p. 178
Strength: 5/5
“The factors — land, labour, capital, entrepreneurship and technology are combined to produce goods and services, and the proportion of each factor used depends on the product. For example, output from the agriculture, construction, and handicraft sectors relies more on labour and thus is labourintensive, while semiconductor chips or satellites require more capital, specialised machinery, and are capital-intensive. These factors complement each other and are interconnected; in case of some missing or misused factors, production can become inefficient or can be halted. However, in some cases, new techniques can change the proportion used and output. For instance, increased machine use in agriculture can lower dependence on labour.”
Why relevant

Gives a general rule: technology can change the proportions of factors (land, labour, capital) and increased machine use in agriculture can lower dependence on labour.

How to extend

Use this rule with data on labour and capital requirements for wooden vs steel ploughs to infer whether the change is capital‑reducing or simply labour‑saving but capital‑using.

Geography of India ,Majid Husain, (McGrawHill 9th ed.) > Chapter 9: Agriculture > 5. Mechanisation > p. 49
Strength: 4/5
“Modern farming tools and technology like tractors, leveller, seeder, planter, threshers, harvesters, winnower and sprayers are also imperative for the successful cultivation of the High Yielding Varieties. These varieties require adequate arrangements of controlled irrigation. Raising of two or three crops from the same field is possible only if the modern technology is available to the farmer. The indigenous plough and bullock/buffalo carts are less efficient to complete the agricultural operations on time. Machinery like tractors, threshers, sprayers, tillers, chaff cutters, leveller, pumping sets, etc., are required for the timely operations of sowing, weeding, spraying, and harvesting. The mechanisation of agriculture also helps in the judicious utilisation of complementary inputs like chemical fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides.”
Why relevant

Contrasts indigenous ploughs with modern machinery, emphasising that mechanisation often increases the need for other capital (tractors, pumps) for timely operations.

How to extend

A student could extend this by examining whether steel plough adoption tends to accompany other capital investments (raising capital intensity) or can stand alone (possibly reducing overall capital needs).

Pattern takeaway: UPSC tests Economic definitions using physical objects. Do not rely solely on 'Labour-saving' intuition (which is a consequence, not the definition). Focus on the source of the efficiency gain: is it the machine (Capital) or the human (Labour)?
How you should have studied
  1. [THE VERDICT]: Conceptual Trap + Source: NCERT Class XII Microeconomics (Production Function) applied to General Knowledge.
  2. [THE CONCEPTUAL TRIGGER]: Types of Technological Progress (Harrod-Neutral vs. Solow-Neutral). The distinction between 'Embodied' technical change (better machines) and 'Disembodied' change (better methods).
  3. [THE HORIZONTAL EXPANSION]: 1. Land-Augmenting Tech: Fertilizers, HYV seeds (increases yield/acre). 2. Labour-Augmenting Tech: Education, Skill training (increases output/worker). 3. Capital-Deepening: Increasing Capital per worker (K/L ratio rises). 4. ICOR (Incremental Capital Output Ratio): Lower is better (efficiency).
  4. [THE STRATEGIC METACOGNITION]: Always identify which 'Factor of Production' is physically changing. Here, the tool (Plough) is changing. The Plough is Capital. Therefore, the improvement is intrinsic to the Capital. If the farmer was trained better, it would be Labour-Augmenting.
Concept hooks from this question
📌 Adjacent topic to master
S1
👉 Labour-augmenting vs capital-augmenting technological change
💡 The insight

The question asks whether replacing wooden ploughs with iron/steel ones increases the productivity of labour; references discuss machinery as an input and specific tool improvements.

High-yield concept for economic history and development questions: helps classify technologies (do they raise labour productivity or just replace labour?). Links production theory (inputs, production function) with historical examples. Prepare by mapping historical tech changes to the labour/capital distinction and practicing application in essay and economy-performance questions.

📚 Reading List :
  • Themes in world history, History Class XI (NCERT 2025 ed.) > Chapter 4: The Three Orders > New Agricultural Technology > p. 97
  • Microeconomics (NCERT class XII 2025 ed.) > Chapter 3: Production and Costs > Chapter 3 > p. 36
🔗 Anchor: "Does substituting steel ploughs for wooden ploughs in agricultural production co..."
📌 Adjacent topic to master
S1
👉 Iron-tipped plough (mould-board) and soil/crop productivity
💡 The insight

References explicitly credit iron ploughs and mould-boards with deeper furrows, better soil turning and increased output.

Frequently used concrete example in history and agriculture questions to show how specific implements raised yields. Connects to agrarian transitions, regional diffusion, and labour demands. Learn the mechanical effects and regional constraints to deploy as evidence in answers.

📚 Reading List :
  • Themes in world history, History Class XI (NCERT 2025 ed.) > Chapter 4: The Three Orders > New Agricultural Technology > p. 97
  • THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.) > Chapter 2: Kings, Farmers and Towns > 5.2 Strategies for increasing production > p. 38
🔗 Anchor: "Does substituting steel ploughs for wooden ploughs in agricultural production co..."
📌 Adjacent topic to master
S1
👉 Mechanisation, complementary inputs and adoption constraints
💡 The insight

Evidence links modern implements to timely operations and HYV cultivation, and shows low iron-plough adoption where agriculture stagnated.

Useful for questions on why technological change may be limited or uneven (policy, credit, irrigation). Ties to development policy and agricultural modernisation topics. Study examples of complementarities (irrigation, fertilisers) and adoption barriers for balanced answers.

📚 Reading List :
  • Geography of India ,Majid Husain, (McGrawHill 9th ed.) > Chapter 9: Agriculture > 5. Mechanisation > p. 49
  • Modern India ,Bipin Chandra, History class XII (NCERT 1982 ed.)[Old NCERT] > Chapter 11: Economic Impact of the British Rule > Stagnation and Deterioration of Agriculture > p. 190
🔗 Anchor: "Does substituting steel ploughs for wooden ploughs in agricultural production co..."
📌 Adjacent topic to master
S2
👉 Mechanisation as capital-augmenting technological change
💡 The insight

References link modern tools and mechanisation to increased capital use and reduced labour dependence, which is the essence of capital-augmenting change.

High-yield for UPSC: often tested in questions on agricultural development, factor substitution, and productivity. Connects economic theory (factor proportions, capital-deepening) with historical/empirical examples (ploughs, tractors). Prepare by mapping textbook evidence to conceptual definitions and practising short analytical answers comparing labour- vs capital-augmenting innovations.

📚 Reading List :
  • Geography of India ,Majid Husain, (McGrawHill 9th ed.) > Chapter 9: Agriculture > 5. Mechanisation > p. 49
  • Exploring Society:India and Beyond ,Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT(Revised ed 2025) > Chapter 7: Factors of Production > How are the Factors Connected? > p. 178
🔗 Anchor: "Does substituting steel ploughs for wooden ploughs in agricultural production co..."
📌 Adjacent topic to master
S2
👉 Iron-tipped ploughs and productivity effects
💡 The insight

Evidence shows iron/steel ploughs dug deeper, turned soil better and increased yields — a concrete instance of technology raising output.

Useful for history+economy questions linking technological change to productivity and agrarian transformation. Helps frame examples in essays/answers on technological impact in agriculture; revise NCERT examples (iron ploughshares, mould-boards) and practice explaining how specific implements affect yields and factor requirements.

📚 Reading List :
  • Themes in world history, History Class XI (NCERT 2025 ed.) > Chapter 4: The Three Orders > New Agricultural Technology > p. 97
  • THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.) > Chapter 2: Kings, Farmers and Towns > 5.2 Strategies for increasing production > p. 38
🔗 Anchor: "Does substituting steel ploughs for wooden ploughs in agricultural production co..."
📌 Adjacent topic to master
S3
👉 Iron‑tipped ploughs and agricultural productivity
💡 The insight

References describe the switch from wooden to iron/steel ploughshares and link this change to deeper furrows, better soil turnover and higher crop productivity.

High-yield concept for history/economic sections: explains how a specific implement-level innovation raised agricultural yields and changed farming systems. Useful for questions on agrarian transformation, pre‑modern/colonial technology, and productivity drivers; prepare by linking textual examples (iron ploughshare) to outcomes (yield, cropping intensity).

📚 Reading List :
  • Themes in world history, History Class XI (NCERT 2025 ed.) > Chapter 4: The Three Orders > New Agricultural Technology > p. 97
  • THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART I, History CLASS XII (NCERT 2025 ed.) > Chapter 2: Kings, Farmers and Towns > 5.2 Strategies for increasing production > p. 38
  • Themes in world history, History Class XI (NCERT 2025 ed.) > Chapter 4: The Three Orders > Land Use > p. 96
🔗 Anchor: "Does substituting steel ploughs for wooden ploughs in agricultural production co..."
📌 Adjacent topic to master
S3
👉 Mechanisation and factor substitution (labour vs. capital)
💡 The insight

Evidence connects greater machine use to lowered labour dependence and lists modern farm machinery as complements to high‑yielding inputs.

Core economic concept: helps answer questions on how technology changes factor proportions (labour, capital). UPSC answers often require explaining labour‑saving vs. capital‑augmenting effects; practice by mapping examples (ploughs, tractors) to factor‑substitution outcomes and policy implications.

📚 Reading List :
  • Exploring Society:India and Beyond ,Social Science, Class VIII . NCERT(Revised ed 2025) > Chapter 7: Factors of Production > How are the Factors Connected? > p. 178
  • Geography of India ,Majid Husain, (McGrawHill 9th ed.) > Chapter 9: Agriculture > 5. Mechanisation > p. 49
🔗 Anchor: "Does substituting steel ploughs for wooden ploughs in agricultural production co..."
🌑 The Hidden Trap

The 'Green Revolution' (HYV seeds + Fertilizers) is the classic example of Land-Augmenting technological progress because it acts as if the supply of land has increased by raising yield per hectare.

⚡ Elimination Cheat Code

Linguistic Logic: Look at the substitution. 'Steel' replaces 'Wood'. Both are materials used to build the *tool*. In Economics, tools = Capital. The *Farmer* (Labour) is not being replaced or educated in the statement. The *Land* is not changing. Since the modification is strictly within the hardware (Capital), Option B is the only logical fit.

🔗 Mains Connection

Mains GS-3 (Economy/Employment): This links to the debate on 'Jobless Growth'. Capital-augmenting technologies (AI, Automation) in a labour-surplus economy like India can boost GDP but may displace low-skilled labour, increasing inequality.

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